Rewards Influence Comparison Older And Younger Management Essay

Rewards Influence Comparison Older And Younger Management Essay Abstract Due to the increasing lifespan and lower birth rates, the world is facing a new challenging era in regard to managing the labor force. Many organizations are in a process of developing new and strategic policies in retaining and motivating the aging work population. Currently, the largest working generation comprises of Baby Boomers who will retire in the following 10 to 15 year. The increasing amount of older people in the labor market causes a shift in the motivation tools that upper management of any organization makes use of. This research paper focuses on how intrinsic and extrinsic rewards influence the motivation of elderly employees in comparison to younger. Key words: aging workforce, intrinsic and extrinsic rewards, job satisfaction, job motivation, Baby Boomers generation, Xers generation, generational differences. Introduction The issues related to the global aging workforce are growing significantly in the past few years. Research shows that in the next decade, half of the world workforce will consist of above 55 year old employees (Kanfer Ackerman, 2004; Arnone, 2006; Streb, C. K, Voelpel, S. C., Leibold, M. 2008). The current aging generation of Baby Boomers consists of people who are well educated and trained but also they outnumber the following Xers generation. This fact affects the labor market and will force organizations (Arnone, 2006) to employ new strategies when meeting the expectations of their personnel. Research shows that the larger the number of elderly workers the more implications companies will face (Ng, Thomas W. H., Feldman, Daniel C., 2008). The main threats for managers in the knowledge based economies are the rising organizational costs, lack of well trained young personnel and difficulties to support the older employees (Goss, 2001). Preserving the older employees is an asset to an organization due to their knowledge and experience. To maintain and stimulate this group of people, on other hand is a difficult and costly task for the upper management. Rewards are perceived to motivate employees but little is known which type of reward most likely affects the performance of an older employee compared to a younger one (Giancola, 2008). According to Lord Farrington (2006) the retention and level of productivity of an employee is the result of how effectivelly the individual is motivated. Most of the researchers in this field focus on the factors which motivate personnel in general but age is often not taken into account. Little research has been conducted on age differences and factors that stimulate motivation (Lord Farrington, 2006). There is a substantial amount of academic literature which examines the perceived link between employees job expectations and the actual exchanged rewards in return. According to Wallace (2006) the exchanged rewards are highly correlated with job motivation. There are two main types of rewards intrinsic and extrinsic (ODriscoll, Michael P., Randall, Donna M. 1999). Both types reflect the degree of motivation of an employee. In order to improve the resource strategies, companies and researchers will have to test the relationship between employees perception of rewards, motivation and their age (Lord Farrington, 2006). It is assumed that people belonging to different work generations have also diverse rewards preferences. Therefore, the goal of this research is to investigate whether rewards that trigger job motivation among older workers are different to those that stimulate younger employees. Research gap An issue which arises from the current ageing workforce (Baby Boomers) in the world is the relatively lower percentage of younger specialists (generation X) in variety of business fields (Wallace, 2006). This fact leads to the overall shift in the organizational strategies and structures to retain older people longer on their job positions. It also implies further complications such as knowledge transfer and the retirement process of the Baby Boomers generation. Thus, successful retaining of these employees is strongly connected to motivation and rewards. There is an extensive research conducted on topics such as job motivation and job rewards. However, relatively little attention has been given to understand the impact of worker age on factors that affect worker motivation (Lord Farrington, 2006). There is a substantial empirical gap in studying the influence of aging on work motivation (Kanfer Ackerman, 2004). Job motivators differ between people from the two main working generations Baby Boomers and Xers (Wallace, 2006). The latter has a severe impact on the organizational strategies since the global workforce is ageing and there is immense necessity of retaining older people. Current literature focuses on four main topics: The effect of the global aging workforce on organizational structures and strategies The factors which stimulate job motivation Types of motivation Existing rewards and rewards systems employed by organization This paper deals with describing the effects of rewards on the job motivation in regard to the two working generations mentioned above. The research carried out focuses on the possible differences between rewards preferences of aging personnel. The nowadays average baby boomer is 55 years old while the average Xers is 38 years old. This age difference might influence the affiliation of different job rewards which stimulate the work motivation among both groups. The presented research gap leads to the following research question and conceptual model. Research question and Conceptual Model The main research question addressed in this paper is: What type of rewards influence job motivation among older employees in contract to younger? Who is considered an old and young employee? What are the main age-related working groups? What kind of rewards exists? How is motivation stimulated among employees? Which rewards stimulate the different work generations? Are there any differences between reward preferences of older and younger workers? The conceptual model describes the relationship between rewards and performance. As mentioned before, rewards create satisfaction which increases the job motivation (Herzberg F. , 1987). Rewards are seen as an independent variable and job motivation is the dependent variable. The moderator presented in this model is the age. It is argued that older and younger employees are motivated by different rewards. Consequently, age influences rewards which positively affect the job motivation. In this paper, the addressed questions are analyzed and answered by the use of a literature. Type of rewards and job motivation are further discussed and described in the literature review. By the use of this literature several hypotheses are constructed and a plan how to test these relations is presented in the methodology. Theory Aging population and workforce generations Developed countries all over the world are currently dealing with an exceptional change towards a new era of ageing work population. Research shows that the effect of aging will lead to a smaller ratio of the population being employed in the years after 2010 / 2020 (Kunà ©, 2009). In Europe, old-age dependency ratios are expected to reach 50 per cent by 2050 and the projection for the rest of the industrial countries worldwide has similar estimations (Kunà © 2009, Arnone 2006). For example, in America in 1977, 37% of the workforce was under age 30 compared with only 21% in 2002, and only 38% was 40 or older in 1977 versus 56% in 2002 (Perry, Lance S. 2010; Bond, Thompson, Galinsky, et al, 2003). Research shows that by the next two decades the aging population will double and around 80% of the Baby Boomers will remain professionally active even when they reach 65 years of age (Moberg, 2001). The projected demographic situation will create serious complications in the scope of the or ganizational polices, retirement plans, retaining personnel and knowledge transfer. Baby boomers generation comprise a large percentage of the knowledge-based labor market (those people born between 1946 and 1964) (Head, Baker, Bagwell, Moon, 2006) and since this group ages and retires it is the Xers generation (those people born between 1964 -1981) who will be expected to fill these positions (Wallace, 2006). However, this generation is much fewer in numbers than the previous generation and they are described as being more concerned about work-life balance. The most essential generation differences are related to the role that work plays in ones life (Kennedy, 2003) and as a result, Gen Xers are viewed as less loyal and committed to work, their careers and their employers compared to the Baby Boomers (Wallace, 2006). The latter generation is qualified as being open to challenges and pressure, performance driven and workaholic behavior (Lamm Meeks, 2009). On the other hand, Xers are described as the people who are creative but also like the fun and informality; Fo r them work is a complex challenge and they overcome it with demands for more free time (Lamm Meeks, 2009). Rewards and Motivation Some forty years ago, Hertzberg suggested that suggested that two types of rewards, intrinsic and extrinsic, may be used to motivate workers (Herzberg, 1966;1987). Use of rewards systems would be expected to lead to better organizational results. Later in the years, many researchers concluded that job rewards and motivation are strongly and positively related. Intrinsic rewards are those that exist in the job itself (Herzberg, 1987a). Examples are achievement, variety, challenge, autonomy, responsibility, and personal and professional growth (ODriscoll Randall, 1999; Mahaney, 2006). They also include status, recognition, praise from superiors and co-workers, personal satisfaction, and feelings of self-esteem (ODriscoll Randall, 1999). Employees are thought to be motivated to work hard to produce quality results when they have pride in their work, they enjoy their jobs, they believe their efforts are important to the success of the project, and their jobs are fun, challenging, and r ewarding (ODriscoll Randall, 1999). According to Herzberg, the job satisfaction resulting from these rewards is the source of employee motivation (Bassett-Jones, 2005). On the other hand, extrinsic rewards are external to the job itself. The comprise elements such as pay, fringe benefits, job security, promotions, private office space, and the social climate (Herzberg, 1987; ODriscoll Randall, 1999). Other examples include competitive salaries, pay raises, merit bonuses, retirement plans, and such indirect forms of payment as vacation and compensatory time off, (ODriscoll Randall, 1999). Employees are trained to be motivated to work hard to produce quality results when extrinsic rewards are present and provided because the failure to receive those rewards disappoints them. In other words, extrinsic rewards are not direct motivators but the lack of them causes people being disincentive (Herzberg F. , 1987). However, both types of rewards, intrinsic and extrinsic, have been shown to have positive effects on motivation (Wiersma, 1991). In relation to intrinsic and extrinsic rewards, motivation can be described in the same manner: intrinsic motivation shows the relationship between employees and their job itself (Hui, 2000) (Hui and Lee 2000), and is developed from the individuals perceptions and needs (Sansone Harackiewicz, 2000); and extrinsic motivation refers to the relationship between individuals and external compensations such as salary (Komaki, 1982) Rewards, motivation and age As mentioned earlier there is a limited research done on the interrelations between rewards, motivation and age. A few researchers paid more attention to this issue by discussing the different trends in the values among Baby Boomers and Xers. According to Wallace (2006), Xers value more their flexibility and autonomy to work on their own, while Boomers are strongly committed and attached to the organization they work at. Smola Sutton (2002) describe Xers as being creative and innovative, technically savvy and multi-tasking orientated, while Boomers are seen as hard workers, long office hours and loyal to their employers. Managers are concerned that Xers have a lower level of work ethics and do not find work as significant as the Boomers (Wallace, 2006). Kanfer and Ackerman, (2004) argue that younger employees are more motivated by performance-contingent incentives, such as salary and are strongly motivated by structured supervision. In contrast, older employees value the structured supervision which eliminates effort demands. Jurkiewicz (2000) states that Baby Boomers demand more benefits in regard to their retirment plans, while Xers are interested in child care support. 401(k) retirement plans are mainly employer-sponsored and boomers are stimulated by them; in contrast, Xers could not care less (Jurkiewicz, 2000). Research shows that money is seen as the main extrinsic motivator for any generation (Sansone Harackiewicz, 2000). However, only money is not enough for most of the employees. Other age related differences in motivating employees is the example that Boomers are genuinely more concerned with their quality of time than money and Xers are willing to trade their financial benefits for more leisure time (Jurkiewicz, 2000). Yet, according to Jurkiewicz (2000), younger adults are more concerned about financial compensation than the older workers. According to Giancola (2008), there are most-valued rewards at work for each age group. Baby Boomers for instance, consider flexible retirement plans and assistance, job training and sabbaticals as the most valued rewards (Giancola, 2008). In comparison, Xers find rewards such as flexible working arrangements, skills development, real-time feedback, work-life balance and tangible, immediate rewards as the most important motivators. In addition, Reynolds (2005) argues that management stimulates Boomers by creating a sense that they are needed in the organization and that their contribution is of a vital importance. Xers, are inspired by direct feedback as stating that results are imporant, not the actual time spent on a task; or indications of how well they perform and what skills they can develop (Reynolds, 2005 ). Based on the current literature findings the following hypotheses are generated: H1: There is a significate relationship between employees age and reward preferences. H2: There is a significant difference in the importance of types of job rewards for what? between younger and older knowledge workers. H3: Intrinsic rewards are more strongly related to job motivation for Xers generation compared to Baby Boomers. H4: There is no difference in the level of job motivation between younger and older workers in their current jobs. I would skip this one, and concentrate on the relations between varaibels and not go into descriptions of situations H5: Satisfaction obtained from each reward is the same for Xers as it is for Boomers. In relation to H5 but also a more general remark: there is a difference between satisfaction and motivation. Your model is focusing on motivation, stick with that. Moreover, the relation between satisfaction and motivation is not clear. Some research states that they are positively related with satisfaction leiding up to motivation, some research indicates a relationship that is reverse, and some research states that they are negatively related with a higher dissatisfaction leading up to a higher motivation to act. Methodology The primary method to obtain information and insight regarding job rewards, motivation and older employees is by using secondary data. This data is collected from articles published in academic journals. The main research engine used to collect data is Business Source Premium. The information extracted from the literature found will be applied in constructing surveys and interviews. Please make a concrete plan to collect and analyse primary data with: questionnaire items and scales to measure the variables (stated all explicitly in an appendix), an indication of the sample (number of respondents and how the sample is determined), a description of the statistical analytical techniques that will be used. Parts you already have stated here but add and elaborate when necessary. These tools will be used to collect primary data. A sample of 150 well will be taken across different organization across West European countries. No random sampling will be used, due to the specific of the measur ement criteria. The companies which are meant to participate in this research should employ people from two main age groups and with no less than 50 employees. The age groups consist of employees between 29 and 46 (generation X) and 47+ (Baby Boomers) years of age. The reason why 47 is limitation age is because the youngest Baby Boomers at the moment are 47 years old. The selection of employees will not be random and there will be an equal distribution between participants who belong to either of the mentioned aged groups. These boundaries are set so that motivation versus rewards can be investigated where people have multiple hierarchical levels, age diversity and where decision making is done by more than one person. The reason why well educated people are the primary focus of this research is because skilled jobs are more jeopardized by the aging workforce. Thus, a loss of experienced and well educated employees will occur in the future. The participants in the undertaken research will be either surveyed or interviewed. The time limit for performing these actions will be between four to six months. It is assumed that this is a sufficient time to collect the data. The opinions gathered will be from members of both age groups so that comparison can be made. The survey will consist of open and close ended questions. The purpose of that is to collect ordinal and ratio data which will allow the researcher to perform future correlation and regression analysis. The program used to analyze the data will be SPSS. The last step of this research will be to use both primary and secondary data. This information will allow the researcher to analyze and summarize all the findings. These findings will be included in the Findings and Analysis chapter. The latter will be used to draw conclusions and recommendations. Findings and Analysis This chapter deals with the outcomes of the primary research. Conclusion This chapter presents all the results and conclusions drawn from the literature and primary research. Discussion This chapter describes any additional questions that can be research in the future.

American Government Exit-polls

As per exit polls in Texas are concerned, there were some interesting results that are worth noting regarding the trend of voting. The Democrat beat the Republicans by a substantial margin of close to one million votes with McCain garnering 4, 479, 328 or 55% and Obama 3, 528, 633 or 44%. The voting in terms of age Exit polls in Texas for President showed that of the 47% male voters, Obama got 39% while McCain had 59%, and of the 53% female voters Obama had 47% while McCain got 52%. What was interesting in this exit poll result was the trend in voting by age.Texas exit poll revealed that among ages 18-29 comprising 16% of the total votes, Obama earned 54% votes and McCain 45%. Among ages 30-44 (31% of the total votes), Obama had 46% and McCain 52%. Of ages 45-64 (39% of the total votes), Obama got 41% While McCain earned 58%. Finally at 65 and older (14%) Obama had a lowest 32% votes while McCain got a high 66% of the total votes from this age group. The exit polls in Texas reveal im portant things. 1. That most men in general in this state favored and voted for McCain giving him 59% over Obama with only 39%.2. That, women in general in this state only slightly favoring McCain giving him a slight edge over Obama at 52% compared to 47%. 3. Among voters ages 18-29 comprising 16% of the total votes, Obama gets the upper hand with 54% compared to McCain’s 45 % 4. But among ages 30-44 which comprised 54%, McCain was the stronger candidate. 5. The trend in the voting by age shows that McCain was the top choice among the older voters. Ages 45-64 comprising 39% shows McCain widening his lead over Obama at 58% to 41% 6.Exit poll among ages 65 and older shows Obama further down at 32% compared to McCain’s 66%. 7. That this voting trend favored McCain considering the age bracket of the voters getting older. 8. That obviously this voting trend in the age bracket point to the direction of racial prejudice. 9. The younger generation was more open to accept socie tal change through conventional leadership styles. 10. That voting by race reveals that voters in Texas votes based on racial preferences. II. A Letter to the PresidentDear Mr. President: In view of the exit polls in Texas, apparently younger generations voted for you in view of their being open mindedness on the issues affecting our society. However, the same exit poll reveals that Texas voters in general are partisan voters voting merely based on racial preference. I therefore urge that you give particular attention on this observation by showing considerable fairness among the people of Texas despite you loss by a margin of almost a million votes for future reference.I hope for your favorable response on the matter by paying a visit and extend the atmosphere of reconciliation. Sincerely: III. Question on the election trends I believed that the trends in the general election have changed dramatically from previous trends. The change that took place according to CREST (The Centre f or Research into Elections and Social Trends) has to do with voters’ attitude that influenced their preferences for the kind of leaders they wanted for their country.In that report, voters chose the leader/s, who could deal with personal issues such as healthcare, economy, social security, gas prices, war in Iraq, political corruption lobbyist, terrorism, taxes, immigration, and environment (Hardy). The voting attitude was greatly influenced by the current issues that affected their country. The new trend I believe will pass on history and will be seen in future presidential elections especially if Obama proves himself as the right president who could correct the inaccuracies in the society.This period is very crucial in the history of the United States and while the new trend in USA election brings remedy to their crisis, the trend will become the basis in choosing government leaders. Reference Hardy, F. W. (9 Jan 2008). Election Issues Excel in America: National Issues Shin e in New Hampshire Presidential Primaries. Suite101. com. http://us-elections. suite101. com/article. cfm/election_issues_excel_in_america President Texas. ElectionCenter2008. CNN Politics. com. http://edition. cnn. com/ELECTION/2008/results/individual/#TXP00

On Being A Real Westerner

The adult individual is oftentimes defined by a childhood image of himself so that even if he tries to move away or change his personality, the old personality still emerges again and again so that ultimately it becomes hard to lie to the self. Furthermore, one cannot regret one’s childhood or past as much as one cannot bring them back and change what happened. The individual is only left to deal with what has become of him because of his experiences during childhood. These truths are what Woolf imparts to the reader in his essay, On Being A Real Westerner.He explicitly states this idea in the final paragraph when he confesses that â€Å"all my images of myself as I wished to be were images of myself armed. Because I did not know who I was, any image of myself, no matter how grotesque had power over me. But the man can give no help to the boy, not in this matter nor in those that follow. † The entire essay focuses on a single experience which the writer believes defined him throughout life. This was the moment when he assumed the image of a rifle-toting Westerner. The introductory paragraph begins the story: the day when the author receives the rifle.The introduction hooks the reader who likes action in his stories because it presents the image of a young boy and a rifle. One would get intrigued as to what a young boy would do with a rifle and sense a foreboding tragedy coming on. Wolff follows through the episode with chronological scenes, as events happened from the time his brother gave him the Winchester rifle to the time he succumbed to the burning desire to pull the trigger and experience both the pleasure and guilt of killing a living thing even if it is only a squirrel.This single experience is narrated through a series of eight separate cut-scenes: Roy gives him the rifle but his mother asks him to give it back; his mother eventually relents after much convincing and cajoling; the author is cleaning the rifle and then marching around the house with it while dressed in Roy’s army uniform; he is crouched by the drawn shades, following the people on the street and pretending to shoot; he takes some real bullets, loads the rifle and practices cocking; he pulls the trigger and kills a squirrel; he tells his mother about the dead squirrel and he helps her bury it; and, lying in bed at night while thinking about what he had done earlier. Presenting these series of images cued by phrases like â€Å"after a few days† or â€Å"for a week† moves the story along and makes the reader understand that the child grows up emotionally through the succession of scenes until the final realization of what that episode in childhood has affected him in life.It is notable to mention one scene that sticks out in the sense that it talks about a different time, that of the author as a grown-up and herding Vietnamese prisoners during the war. This one paragraph introduced halfway through the narrative makes the reader unde rstand that the story being narrated refers to the author’s past. The only other time when this point is reiterated is during the last paragraph. Except for these two instances, the entire essay is a narrative of a single experience in the author’s childhood. The mention of the Vietnam War scene is included for the author to illustrate the feeling of how it is like to hold a rifle but not to use it.According to him, both as a child and as an adult with a rifle aimed at others, the satisfaction is to have these people being aimed at to be aware that they are facing the possibility of death so that they might fear the power of the one holding the rifle. He inserts the image of him as a grown-up while describing the same act being done by himself as a child, for the reader to compare the similarities of both images. Both the child and the man holding a rifle are supposed to evoke the same emotions on the part of the reader, further reiterating the theme of the essay. The concluding paragraph summarizes for the reader the meaning and purpose of the entire narrative. The boy has become a man but somehow, he has not been able to shake off the childhood image of himself as a rifle-toting Westerner.

Analysis Of `` Like The Sun `` By R. K. Narayan - 1181 Words

A newspaper delivery truck cruises around town on a winter day. Late on shipments, the driver makes the poor choice to speed up his driving. Without warning, he loses traction as the truck careens into a house. Thankfully, no-one is injured, but the news spreads like wildfire in the small town - people are actually laughing about it! Why, you may ask? Well, a nicely-timed photo being passed around social media shows the slogan painted on the crashed truck - â€Å"The Republican,† it reads, â€Å"Where the news hits home.† This is an example of one of â€Å"life’s little ironies.† Authors often use irony to satirize the shortcomings in human nature. For our purposes, we’ll be looking at â€Å"Like the Sun† by R. K. Narayan, who uses irony to advocate truth in moderation; â€Å"The Censors† by Luisa Valenzuela, who teaches how power corrupts through irony; and â€Å"A Modest Proposal† by Jonathan Swift, who uses irony to deride Ir eland’s lack of drive to solve economic problems. â€Å"Like the Sun† by R.K. Narayan uses situational irony to demonstrate the delicate lesson of telling the truth, but not being so honest that you hurt someone. The main character in this story, Sekhar, decides to set apart a day where he pledges to be completely truthful, which he thinks will help to make him a better person. Next in the story, his first chance to use this new philosophy is when his wife asks how her cooking is as he’s eating breakfast. He tells the truth and says that it was terrible, much to her chagrin. AfterShow MoreRelatedChemical Hazards43022 Words   |  173 Pageson Chemical Disaster Management. I would like to place on record the significant contribution made by the Ministry of Environment and Forests, New Delhi and National Safety Council, Mumbai for helping in designing the format of the document and providing lots of technical inputs from time-to-time. The Disaster Management Inst itute, Bhopal also deserves special recognition for providing inputs related to On-Site and Off-Site emergency plans. I would also like to express my sincere thanks to the representativesRead MoreProject Report on Summer Training in Kotak Mahindra Life Insurence Recruitment Process16354 Words   |  66 PagesA PROJECT REPORT ON EXPLORATIVE STUDY ON RECURIMENT OF LIFE ADVISOR IN INSURANCE COMPANY. SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULLFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT OF BACHLOR OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION (B.B.A) JAI NARAYAN VYAS UNIVERSITY, JODHPUR. SUBMITTED TO SUBMITTED BY MISS. MIRDULA CHANDA MUSHFIK HASNEN RIJVI SUPERVISER B.B.A. III YEAR AISHWARYA COLLEGE OF EDUCATION E.NO 07/9176 PROJECT SUPERVISED BY:- ASHISH KHATRI (SALES MANAGER) KOTAK MAHINDRA LIFE INSURANCERead MoreProject Mgmt296381 Words   |  1186 PagesLeadership Chapter 2 Organization Strategy and Project Selection 1.4 Projects and programs (.2) 1.4.1 Managing the portfolio 1.4.3 Strategy and projects 2.3 Stakeholders and review boards 12.1 RFP’s and vendor selection (.3.4.5) 11.2.2.6 SWAT analysis 6.5.2.7 Schedule compression 9.4.2.5 Leadership skills G.1 Project leadership 10.1 Stakeholder management Chapter 11 Teams Chapter 3 Organization: Structure and Culture 2.4.1 Organization cultures [G.7] 2.4.2 Organization structureRead MoreI Love Reading Essay69689 Words   |  279 PagesGovernment of India b i n n o v a i c u l t u r w u s i n e s f E N T R E P R E N E UR S H I P m n a d c a t i o n u o n P l o y m e n t l t h e v i r o n m e n t n a n c e A Study by National Knowledge Commission Entrepreneurship in India National Knowledge Commission 2008  ©National Knowledge Commission, 2008 This report has been prepared by Amlanjyoti Goswami, Namita Dalmia and Megha Pradhan with support and guidance from Dr. Ashok Kolaskar and Mr. Sunil Bahri. TableRead MoreBhopal Gas Disaster84210 Words   |  337 Pagesinterven ors appeared together in February. They included Mahindra, Choudhary Qureshi, the then UCIL works manager J Mukund, the then UCIL production manager KV Shetty, managing director Vijay Gokhale, vice-president Kishore Kamdar and another accused A K Srivastava. After the lunch recess, the CJM fixed the next dates of hearing as July 11 and 12. After Choudhary, Qureshi s statement was recorded. Statements were recorded under section 313 of the CrPC. The state government was represented by CBI CounselRead MoreMarketing Management130471 Words   |  522 Pagesmixer of ingredients. The ingredients in Borden s marketing mix included product planning, pricing, branding, distribution channels, personal selling, advertising, promotions, packaging, display, servicing, physical handling, and fact finding and analysis. E. Jerome McCarthy later grouped these ingredients into the four categories that today are known as the 4 P s of marketing, depicted below: Marketing decisions generally fall into the following four controllable categories: †¢ Product †¢ †¢ †¢